Middle Eastern Journal of Disability Studies

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Background & Objective: Learning disability is a persistent problem that is also seen in higher education and only changes its form. Learning disabilities is a group of neurodevelopmental disorders that begin in childhood and have neurological and functional changes. Symptoms of these disorders can persist throughout life and cause major disabilities at work, school and personal life. Also, these disorders may affect how the symptoms of a number of mental illnesses start and spread. Despite the significant number of diagnostic tools for assessing childhood learning disabilities, the availability of validated methods for the adult population is considerably limited. Social and emotional problems are very significant in adults with learning disabilities. Most of these people, even if they are successful adults, have unpleasant memories of their childhood and especially their school days. This condition causes them to feel mostly angry and frustrated and eventually progress to anxiety and worry. Therefore, in most cases, they can not perform their life and educational duties properly and postpone their work. The aim of this study was to Explain the Relationship between Critical Thinking and Deep Learning with intrinsic Interest in Students.
Methods: The method of this research was descriptive-correlation based on the path analysis model method. The statistical population of the study included all undergraduate students of islamic azad university of karaj branch in the academic year of 2019-2020 in the number of 3512 people, from which 400 people were selected by stratified random sampling method. In order to collect the required data, the following questionnaires were used: Fasion and Fasion (1990) critical thinking questionnaire: This questionnaire has 34 items. Facion & Facion have reported the reliability of this test between 78% using the koder richardson 20 formula. Mottaki & et al reported the reliability of this questionnaire using cronbach's alpha coefficient of 76%. Biggs in-depth learning questionnaire (2001): This questionnaire has 20 items Biggs & et al calculated the reliability of the questionnaire through cronbach's alpha coefficient of 73%. In Rezaei research, the reliability of this questionnaire using cronbach's alpha method was 0.70. Pintrich and Diegruth intrinsic interest questionnaire (1990): This questionnaire has 20 items. Pintrich and Digrut calculated the reliability of the instrument using cronbach's alpha coefficient of 77 percent. Also, Samavi and Najarpoorian reported its reliability with the 72% retest method. To analyze the data, the path analysis model was used using Spss24 and Amos23 software at a significance level of 0.05.
Results: The findings showed that the mean age of students was 23 ± 5.39 years. 258 (64.50%) were female and 142 (35.50%) were male. 317 people (79.25%) were indigenous and 83 people (20.75%) were non-indigenous. The results also showed the relationship between critical thinking and intrinsic interest (β= 0.229, p= 0.001), the relationship between intrinsic interest and deep learning (β= 0.236, p= 0.001), the relationship between critical thinking and deep learning. (β= 0.326, p= 0.001) was significant. On the other hand, the results of Bootstrap related to the significant study show the general indirect relationship between critical thinking and in-depth learning and the specific effects of the mediating variable. Other results of this study indicate that the upper and lower limits of the indirect relationship between critical thinking through intrinsic interest and in-depth learning do not include zero, and the coefficients obtained are located in this distance. Bootstrap results show that the indirect path is significant, that is, intrinsic interest mediates between critical thinking and deep learning.
Conclusion: Based on the findings of this study, it can be concluded that learning disabilities can persist throughout life and cause major disabilities in work, school and personal life of students. Lack of critical thinking is one of the problems that can be seen in students with learning disabilities. One of the signs of students' reflexive thinking is deep learning. On the other hand, one of the variables that has a decisive relationship with deep learning is students' intrinsic interest in learning. To model critical thinking, the variables of deep learning and students' intrinsic interest can be studied.

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The present study was conducted with the aim of examining and comparing the effectiveness of computerized and non-computerized cognitive training on the cognitive load related to math lessons and the executive functions of students with specific learning disabilities in mathematics.
Mathematics learning disabilities defined as a challenge in learning and acquiring basic mathematical abilities. The main characteristics of this disability include difficulty performing mathematical calculations, inability to understand the relationships between numbers, difficulties in learning and recalling mathematical concepts and deficiencies in executive functions. Therefore, students must also have the necessary skills in executive functions to master mathematical subjects adequately. Also among the issues and challenges that can be caused by defects in executive functions and other cognitive processes, cognitive load is mentioned. So, due to the problems raised in students with mathematical learning disabilities, in recent years, an increasing interest in the use of cognitive educational interventions to address the cognitive problems experienced by these students has been designed and produced. The goal of these interventions is to improve cognitive processes such as attention, working memory and executive functions that are important for effective learning and academic success and are divided into two categories of computerized and non-computerized cognitive training. Computerized cognitive training are used in the digital platforms and software applications to provide interactive and adaptive exercises that can be accessed remotely and often provide real time feedback and progress tracking features and non-computerized cognitive training also include pencil-paper exercises, physical activities, and interactive tasks that target specific cognitive functions.
This study was a semi-experimental study method with a pre-test-post-test design and with two Test groups and one control group. The sample included 45 girl students aged 10 and 11 in the fourth and fifth grades of the public schools of Isfahan in the academic year 2023-2024 who were selected as available, so that by visiting the school and talking to the teachers of those students who were having difficulty in the performance of mathematics lessons, they were considered and for more accurate diagnosis using the learning disability screening questionnaires, the key-math test and the Raven intelligence test. The sample group was then randomly placed in two Test groups and one control group. The intervention program consisted of 12 computerized cognitive training sessions and 12 non-computerized cognitive training sessions in 45 minutes and 3 sessions per week. Group 1 participated in the non-computerized cognitive training and Group 2 participated in computerized cognitive training, and the control group had no intervention, all three groups were evaluated for cognitive load and executive functions in the pre-test and post-test stages using the cognitive load questionnaire and the brief test. Data analysis was performed using descriptive statistical tests and covariance analysis. The results showed that both types of cognitive training had a positive and meaningful effect on reducing cognitive load and improving executive functions (p<0/001) however, computerized cognitive training were more effective in improving cognitive variables such as executive functions and cognitive load than non-computerized cognitive training (p<0/001). Finally, given the visual and motivational benefits of computerized cognitive training, it is suggested that these exercises be included as educational supplements in the curriculum of students with mathematical learning disabilities

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Objective: Learning disability refers to a diverse group of disorders that may lead to difficulty in reading, writing or mathematics. Children with learning disabilities may face educational difficulties in their classroom. This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of music therapy on the improvement of reading and writing performance in children with learning disabilities.
Methods: The study was quasi experimental with post–test, pretest control group design. For the purpose of this study, 58 students (28 students with reading disorder (14 students in experimental group and 14 students in experimental group) and 30 individuals with writing disorders (15 students in experimental group and 15 students in experimental group) were selected through convenient sampling and randomly assigned into four groups (two control and two experimental groups). Posttest was conducted for all four groups after holding seven sessions of music therapy in experimental groups.
Results: The results of ANCOVA showed that music therapy has a positive effect on reading disorder (p<0.01). Moreover, music therapy had effect on writing disorder in the field of visual memory, auditory memory, and education at (p<0.01); however, this effect was not statistically significant in the field of accuracy.
Conclusion: Music therapy improves the performance of reading and writing in students with learning disabilities. Therefore, mental health experts and administrators of educational institutions are recommended to employ music therapy in order to improve educational performance in students with reading and writing disorders.

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Abstract Introdouction: The aime of this research was to determine the effectiveness of child- centered play therapy with approach Axline training on mood change (Depression) in children with learning Disabilities . Method: The method of this research was quasi experimental(pre test- post test with control groups).The population of this research was all of students (boys and girls ) with learning disabilities in yazd. 30 students 7- 8 referred to learning disabilities shahied Namdar center in the yazd, were selected by purposeful sampling method and were assignment in to group (15 experimental and 15 control). The experimental group received 8 sessions in two time(twice weekly )of child- centered play therapy with approach Axline training and the control group which did not receive any intervention. The Instruments of this research was interview clinical interview and child Depression Inventory (CDI). data were analyzed by ANCOVA analysis. Results: The results if the analysis of covariance showed that effectiveness of child- centered play therapy with approach Axline training on mood change (Depression) in children with learning Disabilities . Conclusion. Findings generally showed that the child- centered play therapy training to reduce mood change (Depression) in children with learning Disabilities(p<0/001).

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Abstract
Objective: One of the most important aspects of ADHD is the academic performance and learning. There is little cognition about effective educational interventions that can lead to improving academic performance of patients. This study aims at improving the development and learning motivations providing e-learning validated models for learners with ADHD.
Methods: The study was conducted using a mixed method. 41 qualitative in-depth interviews conducted using field and coding analysis and e-learning model was developed in the quantitative phase. 30 samples with targeted manner and taking into account factors of research and obtaining consent for studying were placed in 2 groups of 15 individuals who were relatively and homologically controlled and trialed. Based on the design content, participants were equally distributed in each group. Completion of the ISM questionnaire in the two stage of pre-test and post-test, and the questionnaire of academic achievement in the form of the post-test were administered.
Results: 5 component of analysis, design, deliver, support and evaluation were identified in the e-learning model in the e-learning model in qualitative phase and the final model was designed.Average paired t-test results in the pre-test and post-test academic motivation in the examination group showed significant statistical increase from 2.857 to 3.044 (p<0.001). Also results of independent t-test was significant in terms of academic achievement (p<0.001).
Conclusion: Electronic based training method leads to increase in the academic motivation and achievement of learners with ADHD. 
 

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Abstract
Background & objective: The aim of this study is proposing an intelligent model for diagnosis and classification of learning disabilities based on machine learning methods and artificial neural network. Learning disabilities are among the most important and the most complex disabilities in the field of exceptional children's education. Exceptional education is an important area to which computer systems have contributed. Perhaps the first step in the education of exceptional children is the identification and classification of problems that these children face. A lot of research has been carried out regarding the use of machine learning techniques and artificial intelligence in the diagnosis and classification of learning disabilities. Reviewing of related works shows that machine learning techniques and expert systems are helpful to teachers and exceptional education’s specialists. Due to complex nature of and large number of learning disabilities, experts find it difficult to diagnose and classify learning disabilities without the help of computers.  Insufficient number of experts raises work pressure and diagnosis delaying. Delaying in learning disabilities diagnosis causes various problems in learning disabilities treatment. The diversity and extent of learning disabilities and insufficient number of experts make an expert system necessary for the diagnosis and classification learning disabilities of children.
Methods: In this research firstly, the necessity to develop an expert system for classifying learning disabilities is discussed. Then with reviewing related works, strengths and weaknesses of each model is expressed. Digital signal processing, digital image processing and machine learning are the most cited methods used for learning disabilities classification in previous research.  A review of the literature shows that models based on digital signal processing and digital image processing could not be used for this purpose because they are costly and require controlled conditions for analysis of digital signals and digital images. However, models based on digital signal processing and image processing are highly accurate. Models based on machine learning and artificial intelligence methods are also highly accurate.  In addition, results show models based on artificial intelligence are less costly than models based on digital signal processing and image processing. Therefore, models based on machine learning methods are more appropriate than models based on digital signal processing and image processing for application systems. Artificial neural network could classify learning disabilities with an accuracy of over 85%. 
Results: Results show that by using genetic algorithm for feature selection the accuracy of classification can be improved. In addition, by using fuzzy logic system researchers can extract rules of classification.
Conclusion: A hybrid intelligent model based on artificial intelligence and machine-learning methods using the strengths of previous models is proposed. The proposed model uses genetic algorithm for feature selection from among a set of features that have the highest impact in classification extracting. In the proposed model learning disabilities are classified with an artificial neural network. This model uses a fuzzy logic system to extracts rules of classification intelligently. The proposed model is highly accurate in classification and implementation simplicity. Finally, implementation of proposed model is explained.
 

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Abstract
Background and objective: Nonverbal learning disability as deficit in nonverbal information processing is associated with deficits in the executive functions. Children with nonverbal learning disabilities have deficits in visual-spatial perception, memory, motor-visual coordination, spatial precision, orientation skill. The weak performance of children with nonverbal learning disabilities in the executive functions result in academic problems. Such children have many problems in mathematics calculation, copying texts, writing texts and comprehension. The current study was conducted to study the effect of strengthening executive functions on academic achievement in children with nonverbal learning disability.
Methods: The statistical population of this study consisted of all students with nonverbal learning disabilities under the auspices of Learning Disorders Center of Shirvan-Iran in 2015. A total of 30 participants were recruited from among the children with nonverbal disability from primary school in second grade to fifth grade. The research instrument was Lotf Aabadi ʼ reading test, a researcher made writing test and Mathematical Standard Learning Ability Recognition Test. The participants were examined by clinical psychologist of the Learning Disorders Center and were judged to meet the criteria for learning disabilities through interview according to the third edition Wechsler intelligence scale. It was decided that those who scored 10 marks away from verbal and practical intelligence quotient should be diagnosed as students with nonverbal learning disability. The participants were assigned to experimental and control groups. Every participant in the experimental group was matched with a peer in the control group in terms of age and gender. The control group received only the usual school training while the experimental group received routine training and in addition to tasks of coding, trial making, verbal and visual memory for strengthening executive functions. The exercises were held individually in 12 sessions of 45 minutes. These exercises are to improve verbal memory, visual memory, visual - spatial coordination, sequencing motor skills, visual pursuit and attention. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to analyze the data. 
Results: The effect of pretest differences via analysis of variance was controlled. There were significant differences in the posttest scores of the experimental and control groups on reading, writing and mathematics (p<0.001). The effect sizes of strengthening executive functions method were 0.62, 0.79 and 0.49 for improving of the reading, mathematics and writing respectively. According to effect sizes, it can conclude that strengthening executive functions is more effective for improving mathematics calculation.
Conclusion: The strengthening of executive functions could improve speed and correction in reading of the words, writing and spelling of the words and mathematics calculation. Trial making tasks strengthen psychomotor speed, abstraction, flexibility, ability for execution and correction of planning; coding tasks reinforce speed of information processing, perceptual organization processes and speed performance; tasks of verbal and visual memory strengthen attention, motor-visual coordination and memory. It can be stated that strengthening executive functions are beneficial to the academic achievement of students with nonverbal learning disabilities.
  

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Abstract
Background & Objectives: Parents with a child with special learning disabilities (LDs) face many challenges regarding their developmental process. Studies show that mothers in such families experience high levels of stress, anxiety, isolation, and uncertainty that can cause psychological distress. Alexithymia is a factor that increases the psychological distress of parents in these families. Alexithymia is a personal trait associated with an inability to express emotions, moods, or mood swings. One of the critical variables involved in people's mental and emotional health is psychological flexibility, which is defined as the ability to change the cognitive set to adapt to environmental changes. Psychological flexibility enables people to stay in a situation when experiencing anxiety to eliminate it. One of the treatments that can be used for mothers with children with LDs is acceptance and commitment therapy. This study aims to investigate the effectiveness of group training based on acceptance and commitment therapy on the psychological flexibility and alexithymia of mothers with children suffering from special LD.
Methods: The research method was quasi-experimental with a pretest-posttest design with a control group. The study's statistical population includes mothers of all children with special LDs living in Tehran City, Iran in 2019. Thirty eligible volunteer mothers were selected by convenience sampling from individuals who had been referred to LDs centers. They were randomly assigned to two experimental and control groups. Acceptance and commitment therapy was performed in 10 sessions of 45 minutes, one session a week in group form for the experimental group. The study data were collected via Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (Dennis and Vander Wal, 2010) and Toronto Alexithymia Scale (Bagby et al., 1994). The research data analyses was done at two levels of descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) and inferential statistics (the covariance analysis and the t test of two independent groups) at a significance level of 0.05 in SPSS version 25.
Results: These results show the effectiveness of group training based on the acceptance and commitment therapy to increasing psychological flexibility (p<0.001) and reducing alexithymia (p<0.001) in mothers with children with special LDs. The effect size of commitment and acceptance therapy on the changes in variables of psychological flexibility and alexithymia in the experimental group was equal to 0.47 and 0.53, respectively.
Conclusion: Based on the findings of the research, group therapy education based on acceptance and commitment is effective in improving psychological flexibility and reducing alexithymia in mothers of children with LDs.

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Background & Objectives: Executive functioning behaviors are the cognitive processes necessary for goal-directed behaviors. They include working memory, selective attention, and cognitive flexibility. They have long been a focus within developmental psychology and cognitive neuroscience. Cognitive flexibility has emerged as an essential correlate of healthy development both concurrently and longitudinally, making it a critical ability to study early childhood. Working memory is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that is responsible for temporarily holding information available for processing. Female students with Attention–Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), students with Learning Disorders (LDs), and normal students have major differences in neuropsychological functions. However, in previous research, it is unclear which group of children has more problems in working memory, selective attention, and cognitive flexibility than the other group. Understanding these problems provides the basis for designing special education for their dominant problems. This study aimed to compare the neuropsychological functions (selective attention, working memory, and cognitive flexibility) of typical female students with those students with ADHD and LDs.
Methods: The research method was causal–comparative. The statistical research population comprised all the female students referred to the counseling center and psychological services of education and learning disorders center in Marand City, Iran. Among this population, 90 female students were recruited and assigned to the LDs group (n=30), the ADHD group (n=30), and the normal group (n=30). They were matched in terms of age, gender, and education level. The subjects were selected by the available sampling method and participated in the research. The inclusion criteria were diagnosis of ADHD and LDs based on the opinion of a clinical psychology expert, not suffering from other psychiatric disorders, not suffering from physical diseases, having consent to participate in the research, and being a girl. The exclusion criterion was the failure to complete the questionnaires. The study data were gathered via Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (Grant & Berg, 1948), Stroop Color–Word Computerized Test, and Wechsler Working Memory Test (Wechsler, 1930). Data analysis was done using descriptive statistics (frequency, percentage, mean and standard deviation) and inferential statistics (one–way analysis of variance [ANOVA] and Tukey's post hoc test) in SPSS version 20 software. The significance level of the tests was considered 0.05.
Results: The results showed a significant difference in the variable of selective attention between the normal students with the ADHD group (p<0.001) and the LDs group (p<0.05). Also, the normal group was significantly different from the ADHD and LDs groups in the variable of cognitive flexibility in the components of the number of completed classes (p<0.001) and residual errors (p<0.001) and the working memory variable in the components of the memory of forwarding numbers (p<0.001) and memory of inverse numbers (p<0.001). So that the normal group performed better. Also, there was a significant difference between the LDs group and the ADHD group in the cognitive flexibility variable in the number of completed classes (p<0.05) and working memory in the component of memory of inverse numbers (p<0.05). Nevertheless, the difference between the two groups in the variable of selective attention was not significant (p>0.05).
Conclusion: Based on the findings, students with ADHD have more problems with cognitive flexibility and working memory. Therefore, it is suggested to provide special educational interventions to improve their cognitive flexibility and working memory.

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Background & Objectives: According to the new definitions of the Statistical and Diagnosis Manual of Mental Disorders, learning disabilities are not limited to problems with learning math or reading. Treatment or improvement includes participation in daily life activities and the ability to accomplish tasks. Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) can be effective in this field since it focuses on one's values and commitment to them. Having a child with a learning disability has a significant effect on a mother's beliefs and feelings, to the extent that these mothers experience various adverse emotions, such as confusion, depression, frustration, and so on. These feelings affect the quality of life of mothers with children with learning disabilities, and research has shown that ACT can improve it. Regarding the effect of ACT on the well–being of children with a learning disability and their family members, we aimed to develop an ACT protocol using the metaphors of Rumi's spiritual Masnavi.
Methods: This research was conducted using the qualitative content analysis method. We explored Masnavi Manavi's anecdotes using the content analysis method to extract the hidden content of the anecdotes and their adaptation to the ACT categories. The unit of analysis in this research was the anecdotes of Masnavi Manavi. At this stage, 20 anecdotes were identified by researchers. Many anecdotes were not selected at this stage because of their similarity, the length of the anecdotes, or their narrative and conceptual complexity. Finally, an ACT protocol based on Masnavi metaphors was prepared as eight 75–min sessions (two sessions per week). To test the validity of the protocol, we implemented the protocol on a 35–year–old woman who was a housewife and holder of a bachelor's degree. She had a child with learning disabilities (the child had hyperactive traits and learning disabilities rooted in hyperactivity).
Results: A total of eight related anecdotes with corresponding metaphors were found in spiritual Masnavi that matched all six ACT categories. These anectodes are 1) the story of the host afraid of having a guest in her home for a long time because of rain, 2) the story of the bear and the idiot who trusted him, 3) the story of a wolf and a fox go hunting in the companionship of a lion, 4) the story of the horse drinking water while being distracted by the people around, 5) the story of the deaf person who decides to visit his sick neighbor, 6) the story of four people who want grapes in a different language and get in trouble, 7) the story of the jackal falls into a bend of color and starts claiming to be a peacock, and finally 8) the story of the merchant and parrot. The validity of the protocol in an experimental run on the subject was confirmed using clinical observations and open–ended questions.
Conclusion: According to the results, the spiritual Masnavi has metaphors corresponding to the ACT categories. Customizing this treatment using the Masnavi spiritual anecdotes and the protocol based on these metaphors has good validity.

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Abstract
Background & Objectives: Specific learning disorder refers to people's inability to interpret what they see or hear or relate input information from different parts of the brain to one another. It is the most common neurodevelopmental disorder and the basis of cognitive disorders in children. Its three specifiers include dyslexia, dysgraphia, and dyscalculia. Dyslexia, one of the most common childhood disorders, creates many educational problems for students. Among students with specific learning disabilities, the group with reading difficulties has a large number. The nature of the problem lies in processing speed and working memory and the impaired relationship between working memory and dyslexia. This study evaluated the effectiveness of education cognitive abilities based on the Cattell–Horn–Carroll approach to working memory of students with special learning disorders with dyslexia.
Methods: The research method was quasi–experimental with a pretest–posttest design and a control group. The statistical population included third–grade elementary school students with special learning disorders studying in Tehran City, Iran, in the academic year 2017–2018. They were studying in educational and training centers for rehabilitation problems specific to the Special Education Organization. They were diagnosed as children with learning disabilities. Among them, 30 students were selected by convenience sampling and randomly assigned to experimental and control groups (15 students in each group). The inclusion criteria were as follows: being a boy, lacking a mental illness and psychiatric record, studying in the third grade of elementary school, and having IQ over 90. They were diagnosed with dyslexia by exceptional centers, not having comorbid disorders, including language disorders, attention–deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and no emotional problems or sensory, motor, visual, or auditory impairment. These criteria were determined by referring to students' files and observations in the initial sessions. Non–participation in all intervention sessions was considered the exclusion criterion. The instrument used was Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Edition (WISC–4) (Wechsler, 2003). The working memory index of the above tool was used to measure the working memory. Both control and experimental groups performed before and after the intervention and at the follow–up phase. Subjects in the experimental group received cognitive abilities training, and the control group received no special training. Interventions consisted of cognitive abilities training, based on training based on the Cattell–Horn–Carroll approach for the experimental group in 30 sessions, three sessions per week for 3 months, and based on a pre–determined program. In the next step, the posttest was performed, then the follow–up was tested after one month. Data analysis was performed by repeated measures analysis using SPSS version 16, and the significance level was set at 0.01.
 Results: The results showed a significant difference in dependent variables, including "number capacity" (p=0.001), "number–letter sequence" (p=0.001), and "calculations" (p=0.005) between the experimental and control groups. The tests of intra–subject effects related to the examination of dependent variables in the three stages of pretest, posttest, and follow–up also determined a significant difference in the amount of number capacity (p=0.001), number–letter sequence (p=0.001) and calculations (p=0.001) between the three stages of measurement. The effect size was 0.31 for the number capacity, 0.21 for the letter–number sequence, and 0.44 for the calculations.
Conclusion: The study's results indicate the effectiveness of interventions related to training cognitive abilities in improving the working memory function of students with dyslexia. So, this program can be considered a solution for educators with specific learning disabilities.
Keywords: Students with special learning disabilities, Dyslexia, Working memory, Cognitive abilities, Cattell–Horn–Carroll approach.

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Abstract
Background & Objectives: Children with learning disabilities are the largest group of children in special education. One of the disorders associated with learning disabilities is Attention–Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Children with learning disabilities and ADHD have behavioral problems, poor social competence, and low academic achievement. Managing parent–child interaction is the first line of treatment in many pediatric disorders. Behavioral therapies in terms of parent–child relationships seem to be essential in treating learning disabilities. In this treatment, correcting the child's behavior occurs in the home's natural environment and is run by the parents who interact with the child the most. The present study aimed to determine the effectiveness of Barkley's positive parenting method on improving parents' mental wellbeing, children's social competence, and academic performance and reducing behavioral problems of secondary elementary school students with learning disabilities comorbid with ADHD.
Methods: The present quasi–experimental study has a pretest–posttest design with a control group. The statistical population included all male and female students of the fourth, fifth, or sixth grades of government educational centers for learning disabilities in the fourth district of Tehran City, Iran, and their parents in the 2019–2020 academic year. Among them, 70 children were selected using the Conners' Teacher Rating Scale (1991) and the Learning Disability Evaluation Scale (McCarney and Arthaud, 2007) according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria. In the secondary screening, 30 qualified volunteers were included in the study using a clinical interview with parents. They were randomly divided into experimental and control groups (15 students in each group). The inclusion criteria were having the main and predominant diagnosis of learning disabilities and hyperactivity, studying in the fourth, fifth, or sixth grades, agreeing to participate in the research, and providing written consent. The exclusion criteria were suffering from severe medical disease, absence in two educational program sessions, and participation in other educational programs. The participants in the pretest and posttest stages completed Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener et al., 1985), the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) (Watson et al. 1988) for assessing mental wellbeing, Social Emotional Competence Questionnaire (Zhou & Ee, 2012), and Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach, 1991). Students' GPAs (grade point average) of the previous semester were used to measure academic performance. During the intervention, the experimental group received Barkley's parenting program (Barkley, 1998) in 8 90–minute sessions for two months. But no intervention was provided for the control group. To analyze the obtained data, the Chi–square test and univariate covariance analysis were performed using SPSS version 24. For all tests, α was set at 0.001.
Results: The results showed that, in the experimental group, Barkley's positive parenting training was effective in increasing the mental wellbeing of parents (p=0.002), social competence (p=0.001), academic performance (p=0.001) of children and reducing behavioral problems (p=0.001) of children. Also, the effect size of parents' mental wellbeing, social competence, behavioral problems, and students' academic performance was obtained as 0.94, 0.53, 0.95, and 0.82, respectively, indicating the terrific effect of Barclay's parenting training on the research variables.
Conclusion: Based on the findings of the present study, Barkley's positive parenting training improved parents' mental wellbeing, social competence, and academic performance f children while decreasing the behavioral problems of students with learning disabilities and ADHD.